OUR PUBLICATIONS

Take a look at our research and what we’ve been working on. This page shares our published studies and papers, covering topics like speech sound disorders, multilingual students, and much more. We’re excited to share what we’ve learned and how it can help others.

Explore Our Selected Publications

2025

Hoyda, J., Stewart, H., Vannest, L., Washington, K. N., & More, D. R. (2025, accepted). Structural and pragmatic language skills in school-age children related to resting state functional connectivity. Brain Imaging and Behavior.

Bazzocchi, N. B. M., & Washington, K. N. (2025). Current methods for evaluating speech sound disorders in multilingual preschoolers: A scoping review protocol. BMJ Open, 15, e106152. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-106152

Washington, K., Crowe, K. M., McLeod, S., Margetson, K., Bazzocchi, N., Kokotek, L., van der Straten Waillet, P., Másdóttir, T., & Volhardt, M. (2025). Methods of diagnosing speech sound disorders in multilingual children. Language, speech & hearing services in schools. https://doi.org/10.1044/2025_LSHSS-24-00099

Bazzocchi, N. B. M., Kokotek, L. E., Crowe, K., & Washington, K. N. (2025). Beyond test scores: Using drawings and language samples to characterize multilingual children’s language profiles. Seminars in Speech and Language. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0044-1801814

Washington, K. N. (2025). Creole Languages and American Englishes: Multilingualism and Pediatric Speech-Language Pathology. Seminars in Speech and Language. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0044-1801362

2024

Mira, A. S., Wilkens, M. E., Washington, K. N., & McKenna, V. S. (2024). Phonemic and pitch variability in bilingual preschoolers: A comparison of Jamaican Creole and English. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2023.2287426

Szarkowski, A., Lacerda, C., Yamamoto, S., & Washington, K. N. (2024). Complex communication needs. In Routledge eBooks (pp. 99–121). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003267065-8

Kokotek, L. E., Washington, K. N., & Bazzocchi, N. (2024). Using language sample analyses across English dialects: A case-based approach for preschoolers. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2024.2374917

Kokotek, L. E., Washington, K. N., Cunningham, B. J., & Acquavita, S. P. (2024). Speech-Language outcomes in the COVID-19 milieu for multilingual Jamaican preschoolers and considerations for telepractice assessments. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 33(4), 1698–1717. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_ajslp-23-00164

Washington, K.N., Karem, R.W., Macaluso, C., Schwartz, C., McLeod, S. (2024). Jamaican Children’s Drawings of Talking in Jamaican Creole and English. In: Mahony, L., McLeod, S., Salamon, A., Dwyer, J. (eds) Early Childhood Voices: Children, Families, Professionals. International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education and Development, vol 42. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56484-0_9

Abdulkader, D. M., Washington, K. N., Kokotek, L. E., Al-Tuwairqi, A., & Al-Tamimi, A. (2023). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Psychometric evidence and implications for Saudi Arabic-English-speaking preschoolers. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 26(4), 544–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2023.2240040

2023

Hosseinabad, H. H., Bai, X., & Washington, K. (2023). Comparison of intelligibility measures for children with velopharyngeal insufficiency: visual analog scale ratings, interval scales, and orthographic transcription (OT)-based measures. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 38(6), 568–586. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2023.2227987

Kokotek, L. E., & Washington, K. N. (2023). Characterizing communicative participation in multilingual Jamaican preschoolers. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32(2), 658–674. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_ajslp-22-00138

León, M., Washington, K. N., McKenna, V. S., Crowe, K., Fritz, K., & Boyce, S. (2023). Characterizing Speech Sound Productions in Bilingual Speakers of Jamaican Creole and English: Application of Durational Acoustic Methods. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(1), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_JSLHR-22-00304

McLeod, S., Blake, H., Crowe, K., Clausen, M., Gerrits, E., Wren, Y., Titterington, J., Cleland, J., MacLeod, A., Kehoe, M., Fox-Boyer, A., Babatsouli, E., Petinou, K., Zajdó, K., Washington, K., Larimian, M., Grech, H., Kristoffersen, K., Joao Freitas, M., ... Lundeborg Hammarstrom, I. (2023). Children's speech development in 70+ languages and dialects. Abstract from 2023 International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association Conference, Salzburg, Austria.

Washington, K., Crowe, K., McLeod, S., Margetson, K., Kokotek, L., van der Straten Waillet, P., Masdottir, T., & Volhardt, M. (2023). Methods for accurate differential diagnosis of speech sound disorder in multilingual children. Paper presented at 2023 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Convention, Boston, Massachusetts, United States. https://plan.core-apps.com/asha2023/event/519b79a2279abf51f2a245ec7a6732b8

Washington, K. N., Karem, R. W., Kokotek, L. E., & León, M. (2023). Supporting culturally responsive assessment practices with preschoolers: Guidance from methods in the Jamaican context. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 66(12), 4716–4738. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00106

2022

Canta, A. J., Abu El Adas, S., Washington, K. N., & McAllister, T. (2022). Variability, accuracy, and cross-linguistic transfer in bilingual children speaking Jamaican Creole and English. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 37(4–6), 436–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2022.2074311

Kokotek, L. E., Cunningham, B. J., & Washington, K. N. (2022). Construct validity of the focus on the outcomes of communication under six (FOCUS) total and profile scores for multilingual preschoolers: Considering functional speech skills. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 25(2), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2022.2037709

2021

León, M., Washington, K. N., Fritz, K. A., Leon, M., Basinger, M., & Crowe, K. (2021). Intelligibility in Context Scale: Sensitivity and specificity in the Jamaican context. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 35(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2020.1766574

2019

Karem, R. W., Washington, K. N., Crowe, K., Jenkins, A., Leon, M., Kokotek, L., Raisor-Becker, L., and Westby, C. (2019). Current Methods of Evaluating the Language Abilities of Multilingual Preschoolers: A Scoping Review Using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health–Children and Youth Version. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(3), 434–451. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-18-0128

2018

Washington, K. N., Karem, R. W., Macaluso, C., Schwartz, C., McLeod, S., Mahony, L., Salamon, A., & Dwyer, J. (2024). Jamaican Children’s Drawings of Talking in Jamaican Creole and English. In Early Childhood Voices: Children, Families, Professionals (pp. 117–133). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56484-0_9

Washington, K. N. (2018). Jamaican Creole Language Project. A teaching resource for communication sciences and disorders to support cultural competence and experiential learning in the Jamaican context.

Washington, K. N., Redle, R., Murrison, M., & Vannest, J. (2018). Sentence Completion Expressive Language Task – Preschool Revised(SCELT-P_R): An fMRI Task for Preschoolers .

2017

McLeod, S., Verdon, S., International Expert Panel on Multicultural Children’s Speech+. (2017). Speech assessment for multilingual children who do not speak the same language(s) as the speech- language pathologist: A tutorial. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, (29 ), -691-708 https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_AJSLP-15-0161

Washington, K. N., McDonald, M*., McLeod, S., Crowe, K., & Devonish, D. (2017). Validation of the intelligibility in context scale for Jamaican Creole-speaking pre-schoolers. American Journal of Speech-Language-Pathology, 26 , -750-761. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_AJSLP-15-0103

Westby, C., & Washington, K. N. (2017). Using the ICF in assessment and intervention of children with language disorders: A tutorial. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, (48 ), -137-152. https://doi.org/10.1080/14417040701261525

2016

Cunningham, B*., Washington, K. N., Binns, A., Rolfe, K., Robertson, B., & Rosenbaum, P. (2016). Current methods of evaluating speech-language outcomes for pre-schoolers with communication disorders: A scoping review using the ICF-CY. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60 , -447-464 Volume 60, Number 2 Pages 447-464 https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-15-0329

2015

Washington, K., Thomas-Stonell, N., McLeod, S., & Warr-Leeper, G. (2015). Outcomes and predictors in preschoolers with speech-language and/or developmental mobility impairments. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 5, 373-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265659014539689

2014

Washington, K. N. (2014). Support for identifying predictors of functional communication in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12612

2013

Oddson, B., Washington, K., Robertson, B., Rosenbaum, O., & Thomas-Stonell, N. (03-2013). Test-retest and inter-rater reliability of clinicians’ ratings of preschool children using the FOCUS: Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology/Revue Canadienne d orthophonie et d audiologie. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12049

Washington, K. (2013). The association between expressive grammar intervention and social and emergent literacy outcomes in preschoolers with SLI. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 22 (1 ), 113-125 https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2012/11-0026)

Washington, K., Thomas-Stonell, N., Oddson, B., McLeod, S., Warr-Leeper, G., & Rosenbaum, P. (2013). Construct validity of the FOCUS (Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six): A functional communication outcome measure for preschool children. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 39 (4 ), 481 -489 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12043

Washington, K., Thomas-Stonell, N., Oddson, B., Robertson, B., & Rosenbaum, P. (2013). Reliability of the Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six (FOCUS). Journal of Clinical Practice in Speech-Language Pathology, 15 (1 ), 25-31

Washington, K. & Warr-Leeper, G. (2013). Growth in expressive grammar following intervention in 3- to 4-year-old preschoolers with SLI. Journal of Clinical Practice in Speech-Language Pathology, 15 (1 ), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.01.002

Washington, K., & Warr-Leeper, G., (2013). Visual support in intervention for preschoolers with SLI. Topics in Language Disorders, 33 (4 ), 347. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TLD.0000437941.08860.2f

2012

Washington, K., Thomas-Stonell, N., McLeod, S. & Warr-Leeper, G. (2012). Parents' perspectives on the professional-child relationship and children's functional communication following speech-language intervention. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 36 (3 )

2011

Washington, Karla N; Warr-Leeper, Genese; Thomas-Stonell, Nancy (2011). Exploring the outcomes of a novel computer-assisted treatment program targeting expressive-grammar deficits in preschoolers with SLI. Journal of Communication Disorders, 44 (3 ), 315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.01.002

2010

Thomas-Stonell, N., Oddson, B. Washington, K. N., Robertson, R., & Rosenbaum, P. (2010). Establishing the reliability of the FOCUS (Focus on the Outcomes of Communication Under Six). [Abstract] Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52 (5 ), 48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03410.x

Washington, K. N. (2010). Using the ICF-CY in paediatric speech-language pathology. CASLPA Communique, 24 (2 ), 4 -8